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The Hanukkah menorah (Hebrew: מנורת חנוכה m'noraht khanukkah, pl. menorot) (also Hebrew: חַנֻכִּיָּה hanukiah, or chanukkiyah, pl. hanukiyot/chanukkiyot, or Yiddish: חנוכּה לאמפּ khanike lomp, Hanukkah lamp) is, strictly speaking, a nine-branched candelabrum lit during the eight-day holiday of Hanukkah, as opposed to the seven-branched menorah used in the ancient Temple or as a symbol. The ninth holder, called the shamash ("helper" or "servant"), is for a candle used to light all other candles and/or to be used as an extra light. The menorah is among the most widely produced articles of Jewish ceremonial art. The seven-branched menorah is a traditional symbol of Judaism, along with the Star of David. Hanukkah Hebrew: חֲנֻכָּה, Tiberian: Ḥănukkāh, usually spelled חנוכה, pronounced [χanuˈka] in Modern Hebrew; a transliteration also romanized as Chanukah, Chanukkah or Chanuka), also known as the Festival of Lights and Feast of Dedication, is an eight-day Jewish holiday commemorating the rededication of the Holy Temple (the Second Temple) in Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabean Revolt against the Greeks of the 2nd century BCE. Hanukkah is observed for eight nights and days, starting on the 25th day of Kislev according to the Hebrew calendar, which may occur at any time from late November to late December in the Gregorian calendar. The festival is observed by the kindling of the lights of a unique candelabrum, the nine-branched Menorah or Hanukiah, one additional light on each night of the holiday, progressing to eight on the final night. The typical Menorah consists of eight branches with an additional raised branch. The extra light is called a shamash (Hebrew: שמש, "attendant") and is given a distinct location, usually above or below the rest. The purpose of the shamash is to have a light available for practical use, as using the Hanukkah lights themselves for purposes other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah is forbidden. Firefighting is a profession aimed at controlling and extinguishing fire.[1] A person who engages in firefighting is known as a firefighter or fireman.[2] Firefighters typically undergo a high degree of technical training.[2][3] This involves structural firefighting and wildland firefighting. Specialized training includes aircraft firefighting, shipboard firefighting, aerial firefighting, maritime firefighting, and proximity firefighting.
Firefighting is a dangerous profession due to the toxic environment created by combustible materials, with major risks being smoke, oxygen deficiency, elevated temperatures, poisonous atmospheres, and violent air flows.[4] To combat some of these risks, firefighters carry self-contained breathing apparatus. Additional hazards include falls — a constant peril while navigating unfamiliar layouts or confined spaces amid shifting debris under limited visibility – and structural collapse that can exacerbate the problems encountered in a toxic environment.
The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire and to identify the specific risks. Fires can be extinguished by water, fuel or oxidant removal, or chemical flame inhibition; though, because fires are classified depending on the elements involved, such as grease, paper, electrical, etcetera, a specific type of fire extinguisher may be required. The classification is based on the type of fires that the extinguisher is more suitable for. In the United States, the types of fire are described by the National Fire Protection Association.
History
Bulgarian firefighters in action, 1930s
Ottawa Fire Department motor pump, Ottawa, Ontario, taken by the Topley Studio, May 1915.
Main article: History of firefighting
The earliest known firefighters were in the city of Rome. In 60 A.D., emperor Nero established a Corps of Vigils (Vigiles) to protect Rome after a disastrous fire. It consisted of 7,000 people equipped with buckets and axes who fought fires and served as police.[5]
Historic tactics and tools
In the 3rd century B.C., an Alexandrian Greek named Ctesibius made a double force pump called a siphona. As water rose in the chamber, it compressed the air inside, which forced the water to eject in a steady stream through a pipe and nozzle.[5]
In the 16th century, syringes were also used as firefighting tools, the larger ones being mounted on wheels.[5] Another traditional firefighting method that survived was the bucket brigade, involving two lines of people formed between the water source and the fire. Typically, men in one of the lines would pass along the full buckets of water toward the fire while in the other line women and children would pass back the empty buckets to be refilled.[5]
In the 17th century the first "fire engines" were made, notably in Amsterdam.[5] In 1721, the English inventor Richard Newsham made a popular fire engine that was essentially a rectangular box on wheels filled using a bucket brigade to provide a reservoir while hand-powered pumps supplied sufficient water pressure to douse fires at a distance.[5]
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome did not have municipal firefighters. Instead, private individuals relied on their slaves or supporters to take action. They would not only form bucket brigades or attempt to smother smaller fires, but would also demolish or raze nearby buildings to slow the spread of the fire. However, there is no mention of fires being extinguished, rather they were contained and burned themselves out. Ancient Rome did not have an organized firefighting force until the Vigiles were formed during the reign of Augustus.[6]
The first ever Roman fire brigade was created by Marcus Licinius Crassus. Fires were almost a daily occurrence in Rome, and Crassus took advantage of the fact that Rome had no fire department, by creating his own brigade—500 men strong—which rushed to burning buildings at the first cry of alarm. Upon arriving at the scene, however, the firefighters did nothing while Crassus offered to buy the burning building from the distressed property owner, at a miserable price. If the owner agreed to sell the property, his men would put out the fire; if the owner refused, then they would simply let the structure burn to the ground. After buying many properties this way, he rebuilt them, and often leased the properties to their original owners or new tenants.[7][8][9][10]
United Kingdom
Prior to the Great Fire of London in 1666, some parishes in the UK had begun to organize rudimentary firefighting crews. After the Great Fire, Nicholas Barbon introduced the first fire insurance. In order to reduce insurance costs, Barbon also formed his own fire brigade, and other companies followed suit.
By the start of the 1800s, insured buildings were identified with a badge or mark indicating that they were eligible for a company's firefighting services. It is a common belief that buildings not insured with a particular company were left by its firefighters to burn,[11] unless they happened to be adjacent to an insured building, in which case it was often in the company's interest to prevent the fire from spreading. This is a common misconception.[11] In 1833 fire insurance companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishment.
Steam-powered apparatuses were first introduced in the 1850s, allowing a greater quantity of water to be directed onto a fire; in the early 1930s they were superseded by versions powered by an internal combustion engine.
In World War II the Auxiliary Fire Service, and later the National Fire Service, were established to supplement local fire services. Before 1938, there was no countrywide standard for firefighting terms, procedures, ranks, or equipment (such as hose couplings). In the month of August in 1939 with war looking very possible the Fire Service's act of 1938 came into effect. This unified Great Britain's fire service and prepared them for the German war machine. During the London Blitz, 700 fire men and 20 fire women , as known during the time period died as a result of heavy bombing, 91 of these perished at the same time defending London. By the end of the London Blitz, 327 firefighters had lost their lives.
Following the war, leaps and bounds came to the fire service striving into the modern era. This included every firefighter being trained with the Mark 4 proto set and reverting to compressed cork helmets.
Firefighting improved even more with the introduction of the Dennis fire appliances that remain iconic in the UK to this day.
Sadly, despite the introduction of more advanced firefighting strategies, tactics, and equipment to British firefighting following the blitz, there have been nearly 300 firefighters killed.
United States
In January 1608, a fire destroyed many colonists' provisions and lodgings in Jamestown, Virginia. By the mid-1600s, Boston, New Amsterdam (later New York City), and Philadelphia were all plagued by fires, and volunteer fire brigades began to form.[12]
In 1736, Benjamin Franklin founded the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, which became the standard for volunteer fire organizations. These firefighters had two critical tools: salvage bags and so-called bed keys. Salvage bags were used to quickly collect and save valuables, and bed keys were used to separate the wooden frame of a bed (often the most valuable item in a home at the time) into pieces for safe and rapid removal from the fire.[13]
The first American attempt at fire insurance failed after a large fire in Charlestown, Massachusetts in 1736. Later in 1740, Benjamin Franklin organized the Philadelphia Contributionship to provide fire insurance, which was more successful. The Contributionship adopted "fire marks" to easily identify insured buildings. Firefighting started to become formalized with rules for providing buckets, ladders, and hooks, and with the formation of volunteer companies. A chain of command was also established.[12]
Firefighter duties
Aerial video of Firefighting
A firefighter's goals are to save lives, protect property, and protect the environment. A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many lives, but with modern firefighting techniques, catastrophe can often be avoided. To prevent fires from starting, a firefighter's duties may include public education about fire safety and conducting fire inspections of locations to verify their adherence to local fire codes.
Firefighter skills
A firefighter doing a ladder slide, which is used to quickly escape from a window
Firefighting requires technical proficiency of operational tactics, equipment, and scene awareness. Firefighters must also have, or be able to acquire, knowledge of department organizations, operations, and procedures,[5] and the district or city street system[5] they will have to negotiate in order to perform their duties.
They must meet minimum physical fitness standards and learn various firefighting duties within a reasonable period[5]
Examples are:
Building construction
Fire behavior
Firefighting PPE
Fire extinguishers
Ropes and knots
Ground ladders
Forcible entry
Search and rescue
Ventilation
Fire hose and streams
Fire suppression
Salvage and overhaul
Vehicle extrication and technical rescue
Hazardous materials response
Specialized skills
Main article: Special operations firefighters
Specialized areas of operations may require subject-specific training.[14][15]
A hose team training to fight an aircraft fire aboard a US aircraft carrier, 2006
A Chicago Fire Department firefighter can be seen wielding an axe amid the rooftop blaze
Examples are:
Fire apparatus driver/operator - trained to drive fire apparatus to and from fires and other emergencies, operate fire-apparatus pumps and aerial devices, and maintain apparatus.
Hazardous materials technician - certified to mitigate hazardous materials emergencies.
Rescue technician - certified to perform complex technical rescues.
Airport firefighter - trained in ARFF.
Wildland firefighter - trained to extinguish fires in outdoor vegetation, including the wildland/urban interface.
Shift hours
Full-time career firefighters typically follow a 24-hour shift schedule, although some fire departments work 8- or 12-hour shifts.[16] Australian firefighters work a 10/14 shift, in which the day shift works ten hours and the night shift works 14 hours.[17] Firefighting personnel are split up into alternating shifts. Usually, the 24-hour shifts are followed by two days off.[5] The shift personnel arrive for roll call at a specified time, ready to complete a regular tour of duty.[5] While on shift, the firefighter remains at the fire station unless relieved or assigned other duties.[5]
Fire wardens
A fire warden poster, circa 1940s.
In fire fighting, there are also people designated as fire wardens, also known as chief officers. Their duties vary, some may ensure evacuation of that part of the building for which they are responsible; others may be responsible for fire control in a particular area, direct a crew in the suppression of forest fires, or function as fire patrolmen in a logging area.[18]
The chief officer is in charge of their firefighters during fires or emergencies, and is expected to command and control the overall situation while effectively combating a fire or other emergency.[5] Chief officers must be able to evaluate their firefighters, use sound judgement when deciding when it is time to withdraw firefighters from a fire, and react calmly in emergency situations.[5] The chief officer must direct the activities of a fire department and supervise all firefighting activities, requiring extensive knowledge of city layouts, the location of streets, fire hydrants and fire alarm boxes, and the principal buildings.[5] A chief officer must be familiar with sources of fires, including explosives, hazardous chemicals, and the combustion qualities of materials in buildings, homes, and industrial plants.[5]
In certain jurisdictions, civilians can get certified to be a Fire Warden, and some cities require certain types of buildings, such as high rises, to have a certain number of Fire Wardens. For example, the city of Houston in the United States requires every tenant in a high-rise to have at least one Fire Warden for every 7500 sq. ft. occupied, and a minimum of two Fire Wardens per floor.[19] In this example, their duties include investigating any fire alarms (see if there really is a fire and if so, its nature), ensuring the fire department is contacted, directing the evacuation of the facility, activating or delaying activation of fire suppression equipment such as halon and sprinklers (delayed in case of a false alarm), meeting the fire department and taking them to the location of the alarm or to the fire past any security or locked doors, and, if necessary, fighting the fire until the fire department arrives.
Firefighter safety zone guidelines
The U.S. Forest Service publishes guidelines for the minimum distance a firefighter should be from a flame.[20] As stated in the National Wildfire Coordinating Group's Incident Response Pocket Guide: "A safety zone is an area where a firefighter can survive without a fire shelter" and should be "...at least four times the maximum continuous flame height."[21] However this figure only takes into account the effects of radiant heat and does not consider topography nor wind.
Safety Zones can be natural features such as rock screes, meadows, and river bars; or human-made features such a parking lots or areas that have been cleared of vegetation through mechanical means.
Hazards caused by fire
During a fire
Structure fire in Grand Rapids, Michigan, US
One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is the toxic environment created by combusting materials. The four major hazards are:[22]
Smoke, which is becoming increasingly dangerous due to the increased variety and amount of synthetic household materials
Oxygen deficient atmosphere (21% O2 is normal and 19.5% O2 is considered oxygen deficient)
Elevated temperatures
Toxic atmospheres
To deal with such hazards, firefighters carry a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA; an open-circuit positive pressure system) to prevent smoke inhalation. These are not oxygen tanks (oxygen as a powerful fire accelerant would represent a grave risk when combined with virtually anything combustible in the presence of fire) but use compressed air in a similar manner to SCUBA diving gear. A firefighter's SCBA usually hold 30 to 45 minutes of air, depending on the size of the tank and the rate of consumption during strenuous activities. While this gear helps to eliminate the risks, firefighters are still exposed to smoke, toxic dust, fumes and radiation that have contributed to firefighters being 14% more likely to develop cancer.
Obvious risks associated with the immense heat generated by a fire, even without direct contact with the flames (direct flame impingement), such as conductive heat and radiant heat, can cause serious burns even from great distances. There are a number of comparably serious heat-related risks, such as burns from hot gases (e.g., air), steam, and hot and/or toxic smoke. Prolonged, intense exertion in hot environments also increases firefighters' risk for health-related illnesses, such as rhabdomyolysis.[23] Accordingly, firefighters are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE) that includes fire-resistant clothing such as Nomex or polybenzimidazole fiber (PBI) and helmets that limit the transmission of heat towards the body. No PPE, however, can completely protect the user from the effects of all possible fire conditions.[24]
Heat can cause flammable liquid contained in tanks to explode violently, producing what is called a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).[25] Some chemical products such as ammonium nitrate fertilizers can also explode, potentially causing physical trauma from blast or shrapnel injuries. Sufficient heat causes human flesh to burn as fuel, or the water within to boil, leading to potentially severe medical problems.
Furthers risks include the occurrences of backdrafts. Backdrafts occur when there is a large amount of oxygen introduced to an oxygen-depleted fire.[26] If a fire is compartmentalized and most or all of the oxygen has been burned up, there is a high risk of backdraft if something such as a window or door is opened. Introducing oxygen to a low burning fire can be devastating as it will ignite all of the oxygen along the way.[27] It can also be heard from miles away as it has a concussive blast that adds to the effect. Firefighters need to have extreme communication at all times on the fire ground as one broken window at the wrong time could seriously harm anyone operating on the building.
Depending on the heat of the fire, burns can occur in a fraction of a second.
Additional risks of fire are the obscuring of vision due to smoke, potentially causing a fall or disorientation; becoming trapped in a fire; and structural collapse.[28]
"Three hours of fighting a fire stiffens arteries and impairs cardiac function in firefighters" according to a study by Bo Fernhall, a professor in the department of kinesiology and community health in the College of Applied Health Sciences, and Gavin Horn, director of research at the Illinois Fire Service Institute. The conditions (observed in healthy male firefighters) are "also apparent found in weightlifters and endurance athletes..."[29]
During debris cleanup
Main article: Occupational hazards of fire debris cleanup
Firefighters at Ground Zero during the September 11 attacks
Once extinguished, fire debris cleanup poses several safety and health risks for workers.[30][31]
Many hazardous substances are commonly found in fire debris. Silica can be found in concrete, roofing tiles, or it may be a naturally occurring element. Occupational exposures to silica dust can cause silicosis, lung cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis, airway diseases, and some additional non-respiratory diseases.[32] Inhalation of asbestos can result in various diseases including asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma.[33] Sources of metals exposure include burnt or melted electronics, cars, refrigerators, stoves, etc. Fire debris cleanup workers may be exposed to these metals or their combustion products in the air or on their skin. These metals may include beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, nickel, and many more.[30] Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), some of which are carcinogenic, come from the incomplete combustion of organic materials and are often found as a result of structural and wildland fires.[34]
Safety hazards of fire cleanup include the risk of reignition of smoldering debris, electrocution from downed or exposed electrical lines or in instances where water has come into contact with electrical equipment. Structures that have been burned may be unstable and at risk of sudden collapse.[31][35]
Standard personal protective equipment for fire cleanup include hard hats, goggles or safety glasses, heavy work gloves, earplugs or other hearing protection, steel-toe boots, and fall protection devices.[35][36] Hazard controls for electrical injury include assuming all power lines are energized until confirmation they are de-energized, and grounding power lines to guard against electrical feedback, and using appropriate personal protective equipment.[35] Proper respiratory protection can protect against hazardous substances. Proper ventilation of an area is an engineering control that can be used to avoid or minimize exposure to hazardous substances. When ventilation is insufficient or dust cannot be avoided, personal protective equipment such as N95 respirators can be used.[35][37]
Reconnaissance and "reading" the fire
The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire (which may not be obvious for an indoor fire, especially if there are no witnesses), to identify any specific risks, and to detect possible casualties. An outdoor fire may not require reconnaissance, but a fire in a cellar or an underground car park with only a few centimeters of visibility may require long reconnaissance to identify the source of the fire.
The "reading" of a fire is the analysis by firefighters of indications of thermal events such as flashover, backdraft or smoke explosion. It is performed during reconnaissance and fire suppression maneuvers.
The main signs are:
Hot zones, which can be detected with a gloved hand, for example by touching a door before opening it;
Soot on windows, which usually means that combustion is incomplete, and thus, a lack of air in the room;
Smoke pulsing in and out around a door frame, as if the fire were breathing, which usually also means a lack of air to support combustion.
Spraying water on the ceiling in short pulses of a diffused spray (e.g., a cone with an opening angle of 60°) can be undertaken to test the heat of smoke: If the temperature is moderate, the water falls down in drops with a sound like rain; if the temperature is high, the water vaporizes with a hiss—the sign of a potentially extremely dangerous impending flashover.
Ideally, part of reconnaissance is consulting a plan for the building that provides information about structures, firefighter hazards, and in some cases the most appropriate strategies and tactics for fighting a fire in that context.
Science of extinguishment
See also: Fire Chemistry and Physical properties of wildfires
A fire helicopter is used to fight a wildfire
There are four elements[38] needed to start and sustain a fire and/or flame: temperature, a fuel, an oxidizing agent (oxygen), and a chemical reaction. A fire can be extinguished by taking away any of the four components.[38]
The fuel is the substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process. The most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen. Heat is the energy component of a fire. When it comes into contact with a fuel, it provides the energy necessary for ignition, causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the combustion reaction can continue, and causes the vaporization of solid and liquid fuels. The resulting self-sustained chemical chain reaction is complex and requires fuel, an oxidizer, and heat energy to come together in a very specific way. An oxidizing agent is a material or substance that will release gases, including oxygen, when the proper conditions exist. It is crucial to the sustainment of a flame or fire.
Using water is one common method to extinguish a fire. Water extinguishes a fire by cooling, which removes heat because of water’s ability to absorb massive amounts of heat as it converts to water vapor. Without heat, the fuel cannot keep the oxidizer from reducing the fuel in order to sustain the fire. Water also extinguishes a fire by smothering it. When water is heated to its boiling point, it converts to water vapor. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air above the fire, thus removing one of the elements that the fire requires to burn. This can also be done with foam.
Another way to extinguish a fire is fuel removal. This can be accomplished by stopping the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel, by removing solid fuel in the path of a fire, or by allowing the fire to burn until all the fuel is consumed, at which point the fire will self-extinguish.
One final extinguishing method is chemical flame inhibition. This can be accomplished by applying dry chemical or halogenated agents that interrupt the chemical chain reaction and stop flaming. This method is effective on gas and liquid fuel because they must have flame to burn.
Sound waves have been successfully used in a device fabricated by two George Mason University senior engineering students, Viet Tran and Seth Robertson, but the procedure is still awaiting a patent (2015).[39]
Use of water
USMC firefighters neutralize a fire during a training exercise
A firefighting aircraft dumping water on a forest fire in South Africa.
One common way to extinguish a fire is to spray it with water. The water has two roles: It vaporizes when it comes in contact with fire, and this vapor displaces the oxygen (the volume of water vapor is 1,700 times greater than liquid water, at 1,000 °F (538 °C) it expands over 4,000 times). This leaves the fire without enough of the combustive agent, and it dies out.[25] The vaporization of water also absorbs heat; it thereby cools the smoke, air, walls, and objects that could act as further fuel, and thus prevents one of the means by which fires grow, which is by "jumping" to nearby heat/fuel sources to start new fires, which then combine. Water extinguishment is thus a combination of "asphyxia" (cutting off the oxygen supply) and cooling. The flame itself is suppressed by asphyxia, but the cooling is the most important element in mastering a fire in a closed area.
Water may be accessed from a pressurized fire hydrant, pumped from water sources such as lakes or rivers, delivered by tanker truck, or dropped from water bombers, which are aircraft adapted as tankers for fighting forest fires. An armored vehicle (firefighting tank) may be used where access to the area is difficult.
Open air fire
For outdoor fires, the seat of the fire is sprayed with a straight spray: the cooling effect immediately follows the "asphyxia" caused by vaporization and reduces the further amount of water required. This is because water droplets, upon forming in to water mist, increase their surface area by a large magnutude, greatly increasing the endothermic cooling effect and robbing the fire of oxygen.[40][41] A straight spray is used so the water arrives massively to the seat of the fire before it vaporizes. A strong spray may also have a mechanical effect; it can disperse the combustible product and thus prevent the fire from starting again. Spray is always aimed at a surface or an object. For this reason, the strategy is sometimes called a two-dimensional or 2D attack.
An outdoor fire is always fed with air, and the risk to people is limited as they can move away from it, except in the case of wildfires or bushfires where they risk being easily surrounded by the flames. It might, however, be necessary to protect specific objects like houses or gas tanks against infrared radiation, and thus to use a diffused spray between the fire and the object. Breathing apparatus is often required as there is still the risk of inhaling smoke or poisonous gases.
Closed volume fire
Iranian firefighters extinguish a fire at Bistoon Petrochemicals Powerhouse
Until the 1970s, fires were usually attacked while they declined, using the same strategy as for open air fires. Now fires are attacked in their development phase because firefighters arrive sooner at the site of a fire and because of changes in building construction. The increasing use of thermal insulation confines the heat, and modern materials, especially polymers, produce much more heat than do traditional materials like wood, plaster, stone, and bricks. Under these conditions, there is a greater risk of backdraft and flashover.
Directly spraying the seat of the fire in enclosed areas can have unfortunate consequences: the force of water pushes air in front of it, which supplies the fire with extra oxygen before the water. The most important issue is not combating the flames, but controlling the fire; for example, cooling the smoke so that it cannot spread and start fires further away, and endanger the lives of people, including the firefighters.
When a fire spreads beyond the building of its origin and spreads throughout the neighborhood, it is called a “conflagration.” Today, a conflagration is a large fire that is beyond the capability of the fire service to contain.[42]
The volume of the fire must be cooled before its seat is attacked. This strategy, originally of Swedish origin (Mats Rosander & Krister Giselsson), was adapted by London Fire Officer Paul Grimwood following a decade of operational use in the busy West End of London between 1984 and 1994[43] and termed the three-dimensional or 3D attack.
Use of a diffuse spray was first proposed by Chief Lloyd Layman of the Parkersburg Fire Department, at the 1950 Fire Department Instructors Conference (FDIC) held in Memphis. Using Grimwood's modified 3D attack strategy, the ceiling is first sprayed with short pulses of a diffuse spray. This cools the smoke which is then less likely to start a fire when it moves away. As gas cools it becomes denser (Charles's law); thus, it also reduces the mobility of the smoke and avoids a "backfire" of water vapor. Also, the diffuse spray creates an inert "water vapor sky", which prevents "roll-over" (rolls of flames on the ceiling created by hot burning gases).
Only short pulses of water need to be sprayed, otherwise the spraying modifies the equilibrium, and the gases mix instead of remaining stratified: the hot gases (initially at the ceiling) move around the room, and the temperature rises at the ground, which is dangerous for firefighters.
An alternative is to cool all the atmosphere by spraying the whole atmosphere as if drawing letters in the air ("penciling").
Modern methods for extinguishing an urban fire dictate the use of a massive initial water flow, e.g. 500 L/min for each fire hose. The aim is to absorb as much heat as possible at the beginning to stop the expansion of the fire and to reduce the smoke. If the flow is too low, the cooling is insufficient, and the steam that is produced can burn firefighters (the drop of pressure is too small and the vapor is pushed back in their direction).
Although it may seem paradoxical, the use of a strong flow with an efficient fire hose and an efficient strategy (diffuse spray, small droplets) requires a smaller amount of water. This is because once the temperature is lowered, only a limited amount of water is necessary to suppress the fire seat with a straight spray. For a living room of 50 m2 (60 sq yd), the required amount of water is estimated as 60 L (15 gal).
French firefighters used an alternative method in the 1970s: spraying water on the hot walls to create a water vapor atmosphere and asphyxiate the fire. This method is no longer used because it turned out to be risky; the pressure created pushed the hot gases and vapor towards the firefighters, causing severe burns, and pushed the hot gases into other rooms where they could start other fires.
Asphyxiating a fire
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In some cases, the use of water is undesirable. This is because some chemical products react with water to produce poisonous gases,[44] or they may even burn when they come into contact with water (e.g., sodium), see water-reactive substances. Another problem is that some products float on water, such as hydrocarbons (gasoline, oil, and alcohol, etc.); a burning layer can then be spread by the fire. If a pressurized fuel tank is endangered by fire it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank if it is sprayed with cooling water; the resulting decompression might produce a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).[45]
Electrical fires cannot be extinguished with water since the water could act as a conductor.
In such cases, it is necessary to asphyxiate the fire. This can be done in a variety of ways. Chemical products which react with the fuel can be used to stop the combustion. A layer of water-based fire retardant foam can be applied by the fire hose in order to separate the oxygen in the air from the fuel. carbon dioxide, halon, or sodium bicarbonate can be used. In the case of very small fires and in the absence of other extinguishing agents, covering the flame with a fire blanket can eliminate oxygen flow to the fire. A simple and usually effective way to put out a fire in a stove-top pan is to put a lid on the pan and leave it there.
Tactical ventilation or isolation of the fire
One of the main risks of a fire is the smoke; because, it carries heat and poisonous gases, and obscures vision. In the case of a fire in a closed location (building), the following two different strategies may be used: isolation of the fire or ventilation.
Paul Grimwood introduced the concept of tactical ventilation in the 1980s to encourage a better thought-out approach to this aspect of firefighting. Following work with Warrington Fire Research Consultants (FRDG 6/94) his terminology and concepts were adopted officially by the UK fire services, and are now referred to throughout revised Home Office training manuals (1996–97). Grimwood's original definition of his 1991 unified strategy stated that, "tactical ventilation is either the venting, or containment (isolation) actions by on-scene firefighters, used to take control from the outset of a fire's burning regime, in an effort to gain tactical advantage during interior structural firefighting operations."
When properly used, ventilation improves life safety, fire extinguishment, and property conservation by 'pulling' fire away from trapped occupants and objects.
In most cases of structural firefighting, a 4x4 foot opening is cut into the roof directly over the fire room. This allows hot smoke and gases to escape through the opening, returning the conditions inside the room to normal. It is important to coordinate the ventilation with an interior fire attack since the opening of a ventilation hole supplies more air, and thus oxygen, to the fire. Ventilation may also "limit fire spread by channeling fire toward nearby openings and allows fire fighters to safely attack the fire" as well as limit smoke, heat, and water damage.[46]
Positive pressure ventilation (PPV) consists of using a fan to create excess pressure in a part of the building. This pressure pushes the smoke and heat out of the building, and thus facilitates rescue and fire fighting operations. It is necessary to have an exit for the smoke, to know the building layout well to predict where the smoke will go, and to ensure that the doors ensuring the ventilation remain open by wedging or propping them. The main risk of this method is that it may accelerate the fire, or even create a flash-over; for example, if the smoke and the heat accumulate in a dead end.
Hydraulic ventilation is the process of directing a stream of water from the inside of a structure out the window using a fog pattern.[25] This will effectively pull smoke out of room. Smoke ejectors may also be used for this purpose.
Categorizing fires
United States
Main article: Multiple-alarm fire
In the US, fires are sometimes categorized as "one alarm", "all hands", "two alarm", "three alarm" (or higher) fires. There is no standard definition for what this means quantifiably; though, it always refers to the level of response by the local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of fire stations that have been summoned to the fire. In others, it reflects the number of "dispatches" requesting additional personnel and equipment.[47][48]
Alarms levels are generally used to define the tiers of the response as to what resources are to be used. For example, a structure fire response draws the following equipment: four engine/pumper companies, one truck/ladder/aerial/quint company, and one battalion chief unit. This is referred to as an Initial Alarm or Box Alarm. A working fire request (for the same incident) would call for air/light units and chief officers/fireground commanders (if not provided in the original dispatch). This summarizes the response to a First Alarm fire. Second and subsequent alarms call for two engine companies and one truck company.
The reason behind the "Alarm" designation is so the Incident Commander does not have to list each apparatus required. He can simply say, "Give me a second alarm here", instead of "Give me a truck company and two engine companies" along with requesting where they should come from. Categorization of fires varies among fire departments. A single alarm for one department may be a second alarm for another. Response always depends on the size of the fire and the department.
United Kingdom
In the fire services in the United Kingdom, the scale of a fire is measured by the number of "pumps" (ordinary fire engines) that were present. For example, a fire which was attended by 4 engines would be recorded as a "4-pump fire".[49][50][51] ******* A fire engine (also known in some places as a fire truck or fire lorry) is a road vehicle (usually a truck) that functions as a firefighting apparatus. The primary purposes of a fire engine include transporting firefighters and water to an incident as well as carrying equipment for firefighting operations in a fire drill. Some fire engines have specialized functions, such as wildfire suppression and aircraft rescue and firefighting, and may also carry equipment for technical rescue.
Many fire engines are based on commercial vehicle chassis that are further upgraded and customised for firefighting requirements. They are normally fitted with sirens and emergency vehicle lighting, as well as communication equipment such as two-way radios and mobile computer technology.
The terms fire engine and fire truck are often used interchangeably to a broad range of vehicles involved in firefighting; however, in some fire departments they refer to separate and specific types of vehicle.
Design and construction
Front of a fire engine with built-in winch, e.g. for towing damaged cars. The shackles serve a similar purpose.
The design and construction of fire engines focuses greatly on the use of both active and passive warnings. Passive visual warnings involve the use of high contrast patterns to increase the noticeability of the vehicle. These types of warnings are often seen on older vehicles and those in developing countries.[1] More modern designs make use of retroreflectors to reflect light from other vehicles. Vehicles will also often have these reflectors arranged in a chevron pattern along with the words fire or rescue.[1] European countries commonly use a pattern known as Battenburg markings.[2] Along with the passive warnings, are active visual warnings which are usually in the form of flashing colored lights (also known as "beacons" or "lightbars"). These flash to attract the attention of other drivers as the fire truck approaches, or to provide warning to drivers approaching a parked fire truck in a dangerous position on the road. While the fire truck is headed towards the scene, the lights are always accompanied by loud audible warnings such as sirens and air horns.[1] Some fire engines in the United States are lime yellow rather than red due to safety and ergonomics reasons. A 2009 study by the U.S. Fire Administration concluded that fluorescent colors, including yellow-green and orange, are easiest to spot in daylight.[3]
In some regions, a fire engine may be used to transport first responder firefighters, paramedics or EMTs to medical emergencies due to their proximity to the incident.[4][5]
Types
Conventional fire engine
An E-One engine with the Boston Fire Department
An E-One engine with the Boston Fire Department
A Scania engine with the Södertörn fire service
A Scania engine with the Södertörn fire service
An Ural engine with the Russian State Fire Service
An Ural engine with the Russian State Fire Service
A Howo engine with the Henan Fire Rescue Corps
A Howo engine with the Henan Fire Rescue Corps
The standard fire engine transports firefighters to the scene, carries equipment needed by the firefighters for most firefighting scenarios, and may provide a limited supply of water with which to fight the fire. The tools carried on the fire engine will vary greatly based on many factors including the size of the department and the usual situations the firefighters handle. For example, departments located near large bodies of water or rivers are likely to have some sort of water rescue equipment. Standard tools found on nearly all fire engines include ladders, hydraulic rescue tools (often referred to as the jaws of life), floodlights, fire hose, fire extinguishers, self-contained breathing apparatus, and thermal imaging cameras.[6]
The exact layout of what is carried on an engine is decided by the needs of the department. For example, fire departments located in metropolitan areas will carry equipment to mitigate hazardous materials and effect technical rescues, while departments that operate in the wildland-urban interface will need the gear to deal with brush fires.
Some fire engines have a fixed deluge gun, also known as a master stream, which directs a heavy stream of water to wherever the operator points it. An additional feature of engines are their preconnected hose lines, commonly referred to as preconnects.[7] The preconnects are attached to the engine's onboard water supply and allow firefighters to quickly mount an aggressive attack on the fire as soon as they arrive on scene.[7] When the onboard water supply runs out, the engine is connected to more permanent sources such as fire hydrants or water tenders and can also use natural sources such as rivers or reservoirs by drafting water.
Aerial apparatus
A Scania aerial apparatus with Fire and Rescue New South Wales
An aerial apparatus is a fire truck mounted with an extendable boom that enables firefighters to reach high locations. They can provide a high vantage point for spraying water and creating ventilation, an access route for firefighters and an escape route for firefighters and people they have rescued. In North America, aerial apparatuses are used for fire suppression, whereas in Europe, they are used more for rescue.[8][9]
Turntable ladder
An Iveco turntable ladder with the Romanian General Inspectorate for Emergency Situations
A turntable ladder (TL) is an aerial apparatus with a large ladder mounted on a pivot which resembles a turntable, giving it its name. The key functions of a turntable ladder are allowing access or egress of firefighters and fire victims at height, providing a high-level water point for firefighting (elevated master stream), and providing a platform from which tasks such as ventilation or overhaul can be executed.
To increase its length and reach, the ladder is often telescoping. Modern telescopic ladders may be hydraulic or pneumatic. These mechanical features allow the use of ladders which are longer, sturdier, and more stable. They may also have pre-attached hoses or other equipment.
The pivot can be mounted at the rear of the chassis or in the middle, just behind the cab. The latter is sometimes called a "mid-ship" arrangement, and it allows a lower travel height for the truck.
While the traditional characteristic of a TL was a lack of water pumping or storage, many modern TLs have a water pumping function built in (and some have their own on-board supply reservoir). Some may have piping along the ladder to supply water to firefighters at the top of the ladder, and some of these may also have a monitor installed at the top. Other appliances may simply have a track-way to securely hold a manually-run hose reel.
In the United States, turntable ladders with additional functions such as an onboard pump, a water tank, fire hose, aerial ladder and multiple ground ladders, are known as quad or quint engines, indicating the number of functions they perform.[10]
The highest TL in the world is the Magirus M68L, with a range of 68 meters (223.1 ft).[11]
Tiller truck
An American LaFrance tiller truck with the Los Angeles Fire Department
In the United States, a tiller truck, also known as a tractor-drawn aerial, tiller ladder, or hook-and-ladder truck, is a specialized turntable ladder mounted on a semi-trailer truck. Unlike a commercial semi, the trailer and tractor are permanently combined and special tools are required to separate them. It has two drivers, with separate steering wheels for front and rear wheels.[12]
One of the main features of the tiller-truck is its enhanced maneuverability.[13] The independent steering of the front and back wheels allow the tiller to make much sharper turns, which is particularly helpful on narrow streets and in apartment complexes with maze-like roads.[12] An additional feature of the tiller-truck is that its overall length, over 50 feet (15 m) for most models, allows for additional storage of tools and equipment.[13] The extreme length gives compartment capacities that range between 500 and 650 cubic feet (14 and 18 m3) in the trailer with an additional 40 and 60 cubic feet (1.1 and 1.7 m3) in the cab.[13]
Some departments elect to use tiller-quints, which are tiller trucks that have the added feature of being fitted with an on-board water tank.[13] These are particularly useful for smaller departments that do not have enough personnel to staff both an engine company and a truck company.[13]
Platform truck
An articulating platform truck with the Roskilde fire brigade
A platform truck carries an aerial work platform, also known as a basket or bucket, on the end of a ladder or boom. These platforms can provide a secure place from which a firefighter can operate. Many platforms also allow for rescues to be performed and are outfitted with tie down clips and rappelling arms.[14]
Some booms are capable of articulating, allowing the arm to bend in one or more places. This allows the platform truck to go "up and over" an obstacle, and is an advantage over the traditional platform ladder, which can only extend in a straight line.
Wildland fire engine
Main article: Wildland fire engine
An International wildland fire engine with the United States Forest Service
A wildland fire engine is a specialized fire engine that can negotiate difficult terrain for wildfire suppression. A wildland fire engine is smaller than standard fire engines and has a higher ground clearance. They may also respond to emergencies in rough terrain where other vehicles cannot respond. Many wildland engines feature four-wheel drive capability to improve hill climbing and rough terrain capability.[15] Some wildland apparatus can pump water while driving (compared to some traditional engines which must be stationary to pump water), allowing "mobile attacks" on vegetation fires to minimize the rate of spread.[16]
Fire departments that serve areas along the wildland–urban interface have to be able to tackle traditional urban fires as well as wildland fires.[17] Departments in these areas often use a wildland-urban interface engine, which combine features of a standard fire engine with that of a wildland fire engine.[18][better source needed]
Water tender
An Isuzu water tender with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
A water tender is a specialist fire appliance with the primary purpose of transporting large amounts of water to the fire area to make it available for extinguishing operations. These are especially useful in rural areas where fire hydrants are not readily available and natural water resources are insufficient or difficult to exploit.
Most tankers have an on-board pumping system. This pump is often not of sufficient power to fight fires (as it is designed to be attached to a fire engine), but is more often used to draw water into the tender from hydrants or other water sources. Many tankers are equipped with fast-drain valves on the sides and back of the truck. This allows firefighters to empty thousands of gallons of water into a portable water tank in just a few seconds.
Most water tenders are designed to carry loads of 5,000–12,000 litres (1,100–2,600 imp gal).[19]
Airport crash tender
Main article: Airport crash tender
An Oshkosh airport crash tender with the Erik Nielsen Whitehorse International Airport fire department
An airport crash tender is a specialized fire engine designed for use at aerodromes in aircraft accidents.[20] Some of the features that make the airport crash tender unique are its ability to move on rough terrain outside the runway and airport area, large water capacity as well as a foam tank, a high-capacity pump, and water/foam monitors. Newer airport crash tenders also incorporate twin agent nozzles/injection systems that add dry chemical fire retardant (such as Purple-K) to create a stream of firefighting foam which is able to stop the fire faster.[21] Some also have gaseous fire suppression tanks for electrical fires. These features give the airport crash tenders a capability to reach an airplane rapidly, and rapidly extinguish large fires with jet fuel involved.
Other vehicles
Other vehicles that are used by fire departments but may not be directly involved in firefighting may include
Fire car
Fire investigation unit
Fire police unit
Hazardous materials apparatus
Light and air unit
Marine rescue unit
Mobile communications vehicle
Operational support unit
A Mitsubishi Town Box kei car fire truck with the Chichibu, Saitama fire department
A Mitsubishi Town Box kei car fire truck with the Chichibu, Saitama fire department
Chevrolet Suburban command vehicles with the Seattle Fire Department
Chevrolet Suburban command vehicles with the Seattle Fire Department
A Scania hazardous materials vehicle with ACT Fire and Rescue
A Scania hazardous materials vehicle with ACT Fire and Rescue
A Dennis Dart command post used by the Gloucestershire Fire and Rescue Service
A Dennis Dart command post used by the Gloucestershire Fire and Rescue Service
A Marder infantry fighting vehicle converted for use as a firefighting vehicle with the German Fire Services
A Marder infantry fighting vehicle converted for use as a firefighting vehicle with the German Fire Services
History
One of the simplest forms of hand tub type fire engines, engraving from the mid 17th century in Germany
An early device used to squirt water onto a fire was known as a squirt or fire syringe. Hand squirts and hand pumps are noted before Ctesibius of Alexandria invented the first fire pump around the 2nd century B.C.,[22] and an example of a force-pump possibly used for a fire-engine is mentioned by Heron of Alexandria.
Fire engine invented by Hans Hautsch
In 1650, Hans Hautsch built a fire engine with a compressed air vessel. On each side 14 men worked a piston rod back and forth in a horizontal direction. The air vessel, a type of pressure tank, issued an even stream despite the backward motion of the piston. This was made possible by a rotating pipe mounted on the hose which allowed the jet to reach heights up to 20 m (65.6 ft). Caspar Schott observed Hautsch's fire engine in 1655 and wrote an account of it in his Magia Universalis.[23]
Colonial laws in America required each house to have a bucket of water on the front stoop in preparation for fires at night. These buckets were intended for use by the initial bucket brigade that would supply the water at fires. Philadelphia obtained a hand-pumped fire engine in 1719, years after Boston's 1654 model appeared there, made by Joseph Jenckes Sr., but before New York's two engines arrived from London.
By 1730, Richard Newsham, in London, had made successful fire engines. He also invented those first used in New York City in 1731 where the amount of manpower and skill necessary for firefighting prompted Benjamin Franklin to found an organized fire company in 1737. Thomas Lote built the first fire engine made in America in 1743. These earliest engines are called hand tubs because they are manually (hand) powered and the water was supplied by a bucket brigade dumping it into a tub (cistern) where the pump had a permanent intake pipe.
An important advancement around 1822 was the invention of an engine which could draft water from a water source. This rendered the bucket brigade obsolete. In 1822, a Philadelphia-based manufacturing company called Sellers and Pennock made a model called "The Hydraulion". It is said to be the first suction engine.[24] Some models had the hard, suction hose fixed to the intake and curled up over the apparatus known as a squirrel tail engine.
Fire engine, Philadelphia, 1838, trying to save adjacent building. One firefighter (with helmet) directs the water; three to his left are manning the pump. Hand-colored. To the right of the engine is a hose truck.
Manually drawn fire pump in service in Edinburgh in 1824
Horse-drawn fire pump given to Brockhampton Estate in 1818
The earliest engines were small and were either carried by four men, or mounted on skids and dragged to a fire. As the engines grew larger they became horse-drawn and later self-propelled by steam engines.[25]
Antique Japanese fire pump
Until the mid-19th century, most fire engines were maneuvered by men, but the introduction of horse-drawn fire engines considerably improved the response time to incidents. The first self-propelled steam pumper fire engine was built in New York in 1841. Unfortunately for the manufacturers, some firefighters sabotaged the device and its use of the first engine was discontinued. However, the need and the utility of power equipment ensured the success of the steam p